Advertising Overview

Advertising Definition

According to Webster’s Dictionary, advertising is the activity of calling something to the attention of the public,especially by paid announcements. In the U. S., people who have products or services to sell usually advertise them through the media television, radio, newspapers, World Wide Web, magazines,books or mor subtly through words and pictures on various objects found in the world around us. Advertisers master the power of argument. They do this by convincing the public that the product they are advertising will enhance their lives.

Advertising can be described as the most pervasive form of persuasion in the world. Persuasion is defined as the ability to convince others of your own opinion. Therefore, in a way, good persuaders have mastered the power of argument. Each year, U.S. businesses spend $135 billion dollars on TV, radio, and print ads. About one fourth of every television hour consists of advertising, and over 50% ofmost magazines and billboards consist of advertising. Advertising appeals to the general fantasy of the consumer: t-shirts, stamps, license plates. It helps usattain feelings of youth, social acceptance,intimacy and power. It uses images and words to get these themes across.

Critics of advertising argue that advertising should be more honest and less deceitful, and that the amount of advertising should lessen. Proponents of advertising admit that advertising is misleading at times, but it is creative,entertaining, and is protected by the first amendment of the Constitution. Historically, advertising is directly related to the concepts of materialism and consumerism, meaning that in our society, people sell goods in order to make money. Some people subscribe to the theory that advertising is a responseto the human craving for material wealth. Othersargue the craving of material wealth results from capitalism.

A Brief History of Advertising 1

Shop signs, billboards, and other forms of advertising existed in America even as far back as the seventeenth century. During these rudiments of American advertising, certain items were advertised more than anything else-- land, slaves and indentured servants, and transportation such as carriage schedules and ship departures, as well as what types of cargo could be transported with and without passengers. During the seventeenth century, the market economy of America was just beginning, and there wasn’t enough money at first for items of luxury.

During the beginnings of advertising, the amount of paper present in American society depicted the amount of advertising. When the British were still in America, paper was common. People such as Ben Franklin were among the first to intertwine text with pictures to make newspapers more vibrant and interesting. Fonts, which are styles of type that affect the reader in different ways, were as large as 36 point, though 12 was the standard. One popular font was “caslon.”

Through the early 1800’s, paper for newspapers was scarce. Most newspapers were composed of rag, which was difficult to find. The average point size of fonts had to be reduced to half their size. By doing this, newspapers could increase the number of words per page. Rag for newspaper came from clothing such as shirts and dresses. When clothes became too worn out to wear, people made them into quilts and blankets, and finally, the potential rag would be worn out enough to make rag paper. This process took a long time, so not much rag was available. Most largecities produced 300 to 400 sheets a day. As that happened, newspapers also used less and less white space, and crowded small text advertisements into columns. The lack of ad space resulted in abbreviated advertisements. It also resulted in creative advertising moving elsewhere-- to displays, handbills and trade cards.

During the beginning of the U.S., between 1780-1830, families did not have much spending money. As a result, the market advertisers realized consumers only had a demand for basic necessities such as tools, food not grown on family farms, and clothing-- not that there wasn’t a demand for just about anything, there just wasn’t money to pay for it. In the late 1700’s and early 1800’s, most advertisers were selling goods to their community. The communities spread out a little bit as wealth increased, but usually most ads were targeted to places within a day or sotravel. Because railroad tracks only went as far as Mississippi by the early 1850’s, it was difficult to ship things any further.

The first products to be advertised nationally were patent medicines. Patent medicines were not patented in the way things are patented today. Basically, medicines throughout British history received royal approval in England. Hence, these new medicines in America retained the name “patent.” These medicines were usually comprised of alcohol and/or opium or morphine. Merchants began advertising specific medicines, and in essence began what we today call “trademarking.”

In the 1830’s, inventors discovered chlorine. Chlorine could be used to bleach materials to make newspaper, so more newsprint became available. Since more and more white space could now be utilized in the papers, advertisers began to take advantage, especially patent medicine advertisers. In addition, ads for tools such as reapers and sewing machines began to appear.

Economists once believed that advertising began to grow into such a huge industry leading up to the Civil War because more and more goods were produced. Transportation was greater, and so was the wealth of the expanded markets. The economists believed that since advertisers began advertising beyond local communities, the industry began to boom. Today, however, economists believe that what was more important to the growth of advertising was the need to fix a market price. Manufacturers, as they produced more goods, depended on the buyer to come up with a price. If manufacturers could develop a reputation for their product through advertising, then they could set a fixed price to their product. For example, buyers would eventually be able to buy almost any cola at a good price, but Coca Cola could charge more due to the reputation its product got from advertising. In addition, advertising made consumers aware of various products. As a result, consumers demanded stores carry specific brand names.

A Brief History of Advertising 2

By 1850, the American economy was growing in leaps and bounds. Industry increased, and there was a great demand for workers. Most newspaper ads were less than three lines, though. At first, the advertisers were limited to one column in width, and there was a standard price per line. This helped the industry give equal opportunities to both small and large advertising firms-- they could all afford to advertise their products. Larger advertisers used broadsides and posters to outlet their creative energy. One of these original creative advertisers was P.T. Barnum,who at this time was a patent medicine salesman. Hyperbole, or gross exaggeration,was commonplace in the mid 1800’s. Ads claimed products did things they did not do, and consumers learned to expect this deceit.

During this time, ad agencies opened and offered services to advertisers (or manufacturers), saying they would help write the ads. Agents would buy ad space in newspapers at a discount, and then sell the space at full price. Therefore, the agencies became close with newspapers and other periodicals. As the century progressed, agencies began offering more and more assistance to manufacturers. Therefore, there was confusion as to whose side agencies are on: newspapers or advertisers, a confusion still present today.

The Civil War caused many changes in American society. Many men were away fighting, and women, who at that time were confined to the home, began working. Stories about the war began to appear in the newspapers, and the ads were then moved to the back pages. Manufacturers of items like typewriters and soap began to incorporate pictures into advertisements, and this style was adopted by department stores such as Macy’s and Lord & Taylor.

In addition, before the Civil War, food items were usually sold in bulk. There were barrels of crackers to pick from, vats of flour, slabs of bacon and so forth. These bulk items were generic. Products were usually put into a paper sack for the consumer to bring home. By the end of the Civil War, advertisers began using trademarking and packaging as a tool. Products began developing names as they were sold in jars, waxed paper, and other types of containers. Cereal was invented and sold, sometimes as a type of medicine. The first of these brands were Dr. Kellogg, C.W. Post, and Quaker.

Patent medicines, which had been around for a while, became more popular than ever during the Civil War. During the war, soldiers who had not been previously exposed to these medications were introduced to them. The largest maker was J.C Ayer of Lowell, Massachusetts. Eventually, the town of Ayer, Massachusetts would be named after him. Ayer started making tonics and then developed pills. Advertisers developed the concept of the “body as machine,” and came out with patent medicines for any possible physical discomfort a person might have. Patent medicines went on to shape the history of advertising in four ways: First, the druggists got their ads into just about all communities to regularize rates. Second, legitimate advertisers realized the ridiculous claims of many large patent medicine advertisers, such as the claim that their medicines cured cancer. Therefore, there arose a need to police the industry. This need led to the Better Business Bureau. Third, many of the medications were harmful, and led to regulating agencies such as the FDA. Finally, these medications led to the popularity of ads in magazines.

F.G. Kinsman was a bottler of patent medicines in Maine. Kinsman noticed that magazines had space that could be utilized for trademark ads. Instead of going directly to already existing magazines, he began to use religion to promote advertising. Kinsman started his own magazines, and published the most popular Sunday school monthlies. The back of these monthlies advertised patent medicines. Kinsman’s idea was a huge success, and most magazines then realized the financialpotential of advertising.

A. Montgomery Ward was a travelling salesman in the 1870’s. He decided that if catalogs could contain pictures of clothing items, the clothing would sell better. His ideas worked. At first, he used woodcuts to make black and whitepictures. Furthermore, Ward began using colored pictures, which he found sold three times as many clothes as black and white pictures. Also, magazines began to target specific audiences: women, men, sports, agriculture.

By 1900, many ads contained pictures. In addition, advertising ran the publishing business for the most part. About 65 percent of each magazine’s income came from advertising money. National and local advertising became differentiated. Many people began complaining about the sociological effects of national advertising.

A Brief History of Advertising 3

Just prior to World War I, aspirin was invented. Both the development of aspirin and the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act contributed to the fading away of patent medicines. During the beginning of the twentieth century, automobile ads began filling the pages of magazines and newspapers. Several auto companies immediately began competing with each other for more consumer attention. Inventions such as refrigerators and telephones also became the priority of ads.

During World War I, the government began buying a lot of ad space. In addition, for the first time, manufacturers and agencies focused on a new, female market. They began to realize that women did the vast majority of purchasing in America. At this time, advertisers saw women as emotional people with a need to fulfill inarticulate longings.

Ads began targeting females in the 1920’s. Manufacturers encouraged women to write in to their companies about their lives, and the manufacturers in turn wrote back. This helped encourage women to buy products. “Betty Crocker” and“Dorothy Dix” invited women to write to “Betty” or “Dorothy.” This concept eventually led to the popularity of Ann Landers and Dear Abby. In addition, more and more ads for cosmetics and other products emerged.

The Great Depression resulted in the collapse of the advertising industry. About a quarter of the country was unemployed. Many advertising agencies went out of business forever. During this time, the advertisers, tight on money, did great amounts of research determining advertising’s worth.

In the 1930’s, two distinct types of advertising developed. David Ogilvy is responsible for the first type. He felt that the people he was advertising to were intelligent peers who wanted to find out more about a product. There was nothing flashy about his ads, only straight-forward information. The other types of ads were invented by Bill Bernbach. These ads were comedic, and were often done in black and white. The viewer was supposed to associate himself or herself with the humor. Bernbach’s theory was for advertising to be a form of persuasion. Drama was to be utilized to the fullest.

As ads became more and more popular on television, ad agencies began to segment their audience. They began studies to see what people would buy which products. After the appropriate audience was determined, the agency would make sure they would be exposed to the ad. They tried to make each ad relate to the particular audience. People with similar qualities to the audience would appear in the ads. Themes that the audience could relate to also appeared. This led to the development of catchy slogans which focused on particular audiences.

How to Be Ad Smart

It is important that you know how to evaluate ads. By evaluating ads, you can distinguish the advertised product from all of the other ad components. You will be able to ask yourself if the ad agency is using something completely different than the product to sell the product. You will be able to tell if an ad is appealing to your emotions rather than the product at hand, if the ad uses a role model to get you to buy the product, if the ad is failing to tell you the negatives about a product, or if the ad uses misleading language in its claims. Finally, as a conscious consumer, you will be able to make intelligent decisions about buying products to make your life better.

AIDA

AIDA stands for attention, interest, desire, and action. Ads, demonstrate these four things. The first thing an ad tries to do is grab its audience’s attention. It can do this in many ways. Some of these ways might include using bright, attention-getting colors, loud noises, or shocking messages. Other ways might include using famous celebrities in ads or using exposed body parts. Depending on the audience, one “attention-getter” is used instead of another. For example, an ad for a toy would have an audience of children. It might, therefore, feature a cartoon character as an attention-getter. On the other hand, an ad for a fast food restaurant would focus on a broad audience, and might use a professional sports player that most adults would recognize.

Once an ad captures the audience’s attention, it must hold the audience’s interest. It must therefore appeal to the audience in some way. For example, imagine an ad for back pain medicine. The audience for this ad would be people who suffer from back pain. To hold the audience’s attention, the ad might display a man or woman in terrible pain. The audience, who has frequent back pain, is able to relate to the pain the person in the ad feels. Therefore, the ad is successful in keeping the audience’s attention.

By getting and holding the audience’s attention, successful ads develop the audience’s desire to buy the advertised product. As a result, the audience wants to go out and buy the product. Think back to the medicine example. Let’s say that at the end of that ad, the person in pain takes some of the advertised medicine. Almost immediately, their back pain is gone. If the ad is successful, this ease of pain would stimulate a desire in the audience to buy the medicine in order to get relief from back pain.

Finally, the audience will take action and go out and buy the advertised product. The more successful the ad, the more of an advertised product people will buy. If the back pain medicine was advertised well, a person will recognize it as they walk down the medicine section of the store.

Today, people are conditioned to see ads and buy products. Advertisers know this. Sometimes, ads are still successful even though they never even mention the product. Advertisers capture an audience’s attention even though what they display has nothing to do with the product. The audience is interested anyway, and may even desire products based on this interest that have nothing to do with the actual product. Many jeans commercials function this way. For example, a jeans commercial might display an adolescent woman talking to herself about her problems. At the very end, the logo of the jeans is briefly displayed. The adolescent audience can relate to her and her problems, and therefore go out and buy the jeans, even though the product itself was not mentioned.

To analyze an ad means to break it down into its parts to find out what exactly it is doing. Ask yourself questions like, “What is this ad selling?” “What is this ad using to sell a specific product?” “What do they want me to do?” “How did this ad get my attention?” “Does it hold my interest? How?” “Do I desire the advertised product? Why?” This is especially important when you evaluating tobacco ads.

The Language of Advertising

In the debate over advertising ethics, many people argue that the language of advertising is merely jargon. To them, advertising informs the public about the product being advertised. Ads are often deceitful, grammatically incorrect, sexist, and without a system of ethical rules. They argue, though it is not always true, that advertisers will do just about anything that is legal, no matter how moral or immoral, to sell their product and make money. Advertising debases the English language, insults the public’s intelligence, sells dreams, and encourages stereotypes. On the contrary, proponents of advertising argue that they have a right to free speech guaranteed by the first amendment. Accordingly, they argue that people have a right not to read or view ads, and a right not to buy the products.

What happens behind the scenes

The first responsibility of an ad agency is to show its critics that they can advertise the product better than any other agency. The agency designates a specific, creative team to work vigorously to come up with ideas on how to advertise the product. The agency will use the results of this team’s efforts to land the account with the manufacturer. This process is called “pitching the glue.” A successful pitch means that the ad agency successfully gets the account to advertise the manufacturer’s product.

Once the account is landed, a lot of research and investigation is done. The type of investigation depends on the product. Many times, the agency uses some sort of survey to see how people feel about the product. Usually, ad agents attend focus groups, which are meetings between the agents and members of the audience that will be targeted. The agency may advertise via print, radio, or television. Radio and television often require music. Many times, large amounts of money must be paid if the songs to be used contain copyrights. Otherwise, advertisers look in the public domain archives of songs. From here, ad agents will come up with new words to the songs. In addition, they will come up with slogans they will use to capture the audience’s attention.

Advertisers are in many ways free to deceive their audience. However, the FTC, because advertising in the past has been abused, has begun to regulate the advertising industry in America. Therefore, advertisers have to be careful about how and what they say. For example, the word “new” is often used when advertising products. Legally,the word “new” can only be used for six months unless the product undergoes an additional change. Similarly, certain words or phrases, often misleading ones, have certain laws attributed to them. Advertisers are free to use them as long as they adhere to the rules. Often, these words are called weasel words. Here are four of these words:

“Help”

The word help means to aid, to assist, to embellish, but nothing more. It does not mean to stop, terminate, eliminate, heal, cure, or any of the other qualities an audience often associates with it. Advertisers often use the word help so that they underscore what they are actually saying with the word that follows it. In fact, the word “help” legally means to aid or assist. For example, if a product“helps cure” indigestion, it in fact doesn’t “cure” indigestion. Next time you are watching television, look how many times the word help is used by advertisers.

“Virtually”

Another weasel word is virtually. Virtually is another way advertisers get out of making superlative claims to products. To advertisers, virtually can mean “not really,” or “not in fact.” In the early 1970’s, a woman sued the pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly and Company when she became pregnant. The company claimed that their birth control pills were virtually 100% effective. The court ruled in favor of the company because “virtually” does not mean completely. Rather, it means almost, or essentially. Next time you are watching television, look how many times the word virtually is used by advertisers.

“New and Improved”

The word improved is often used with the word new. The word new, as discussed before, is usually limited to six months. However, there are certain situations where it can be used longer. New and improved products are required to have gone through some sort of change in their material composition. Therefore, products don’t necessarily have to do their jobs any better, they only have to have change slightly somehow. In addition, though new and improved products often do not do a better job, they often cost more money. Next time you are watching television,listen for how many times the words new and improved are used by advertisers.

“Like”

Advertisers often use the word like to advertise their products. They often use this word because it takes the audience’s attention off the product at hand and places it on their claim. The word “like” can mean “not in fact.” For example, some products claim to work “like magic.” First of all, nobody can really define what magic is. Therefore, the advertised claim really has no legitimate value. Second, if one reads the slogan literally, the product isn’t magic, it’s like magic. Furthermore, a slogan for rice might be, “eating this rice is like taking a trip to China.” What does a slogan like this really mean? What does it say about the product? Think about the famous claim for Winston cigarettes: Winston tastes good like a cigarette should. First of all, it is grammatically incorrect because it lacks parallelism, and should read “Winston tastes good like a cigarette should taste.” Second, what should a cigarette taste like? As a matter of fact, Winstons are like most cigarettes, some smokers like them and some smokers don’t.

Note the following example, taken from Charles A. O’Neill’s essay, The Language of Advertising about the ad campaign for Camel Lights cigarettes, and the use of the cartoon figure Joe Camel:

At first glance, this combination of artwork and text does not appear to be unusual. What is different about Camel’s ad campaign is that it has spawned debates on newspaper editorial pages and has triggered organized protest. Old Joe, imported to these shores in the late 1980’s, after a successful test run in Europe, has been declared by some an unwelcome visitor-- an intruder whose very charm and decidedly cool style is seducing the nation’s youth into a deadly habit that results in 400,000 deaths by lung cancer every year. Those who want to eliminate Joe-- send him back to obscurity amid the pyramids, as it were-- have a simple argument: “Everyone knows smoking is bad for the health. You’re using a cartoon to sell cigarettes to our children. The public interest is more important than your right to free speech. And it’s in the public interest for us to protect our children from your unhealthy, dangerous product.” Those who support Old Joe-- principally his colleagues at R.J. Reynolds-- argue that their constitutionally affirmed right to free speech extends to advertisements about their product. Given the opportunity, they would likely add: “Is smoking unhealthy? Driving is dangerous, too.”

The obvious topic of the debate is cigarette advertising, but beneath the surface, it signals something more interesting and broad-based: the rather uncomfortable, tentative acceptance of advertising in our society. We recognize the value of advertising, but on some level we can’t quite fully reconcile ourselves to it.

The language of advertising has its own special rules that differentiates it from other languages. First, advertising language has been edited for a specific purpose. Its purpose is to cause a specific response in the audience. Second, the language of advertising is saturated and dramatic-- it must be this way to capture an audience’s attention. The teams who design ads know how easily distracted each viewer can be. Third, advertisers try to involve the audience in each ad. An ad that uses soldiers might try to recruit military personnel into buying a specific product. Other products, such as beverages, might try to focus on a larger audience. An example of this broad-audience advertising happened during World Wars I and II. Because most of America felt very patriotic about those two wars, cigarette companies displayed various soldiers smoking in their ads. This tactic influenced the patriotic U.S. audience into buying cigarettes. Finally, advertising language is simple. It is usually written in a much simpler language than college or even high school level English.

A Brief Synopsis of Communication

Social reality is the way in which people perceive the world in which they live. Social reality is made up of how people feel about other people, economics,politics, religion, and about the relationship between these things. People’s perspectives change over time. For example, during times of war, people may have had a strong sense of nationalism. They may have perceived their native country as the "good guy" and the enemy as the "bad guy". Perceptions also vary throughout different parts of the world. In keeping with the same analogy, during WWII,Americans had a favorable view of their own country, whereas Germans, Italians, and the Japanese most likely had a poor perception of the United States.

Messages are a form of communication constructed and created by individuals. Each individual decides which words or images to use, methods for organizing them, and how to present them to their audience. Messages are created for many reasons. They often have economic, political, and socially aesthetic purposes behind them. This can be seen in commercials, billboards, and other advertising mediums.For example, The Marlboro Man associates Marlboro cigarettes with a handsome, rugged cowboy. This may send people the message that if they smoke Marlboro cigarettes they too can be rugged and handsome.

When receiving a message, each individual brings into that reception his or her prior knowledge. For this reason, everybody interprets messages differently. Using the Marlboro example, someone who knows the hazards of smoking will not be allured by the advertisement at all. However, to someone lacking knowledge about the dangers of tobacco, the image of the cowboy may be appealing.

People live in different places and come from different cultures. A culture is the system of beliefs, customs, religion, and social relationships of a given group of people. Because of this, different cultures have different opinions, ideas, values, and beliefs. People learn and grow by constantly amending these attributes to meet their basic needs. They are also a result of, and continually influenced by,historic development, the way the government functions, and the rights of individuals.

Global connections are the inter-relations among communities across the world. Included in these relations are the role of citizens, how they relate to other citizens of their community, and how they relate to people of different communities worldwide. All citizens have roles which range from student to parent to community leaders, etc. These roles are connected through various relationships, such as the tie between a teacher and a student or a mayor and the people of the city he or she represents. Relationships also exist between communities. For example, the President of the United States has a relationship with the leaders of other countries.

Repetition, with respect to communication, happens when a message is frequent or occurs continually. The more times something is repeated, the more familiar people will be with it. People know and recall what is familiar more easily. Repetition leads to association. Association is a tool used by persuaders. With this, a product or idea is linked to something that is known to be already desired. Association is seen frequently in advertising. Good examples of association are the advertisements for Virginia Slim cigarettes. It is known that being slim and attractive is desired by most women. Therefore the advertisers of this product link this coveted image to Virginia Slim cigarettes. The association is further affirmed by including the word Slim in the name.

Omission is a tool in which the information presented is true, but may have important aspects left out. This tool is used habitually in the gym and health club industry. Commercials asserting that someone can "join now for only $5" are routine. However, the commercial omits the fact that after someone joins for $5, they are responsible for a fixed number of contracted monthly payments of an undisclosed amount.

Diversion is also a tool used in advertising. This is when time, effort, and money are spent on unimportant and irrelevant issues. Examples that come to mind are recent commercials for jeans. Several of these concentrate on images of sex, fun, or relaxation without ever even showing the product being sold.

Confusion is one last advertising mechanism we will discuss. This occurs when an accidental error or deliberate deception hides or obscures disadvantages or problems associated with a product. This is most prevalent in ads for kitchen appliances. Juicers, blenders, or slicers are shown working with ease. Many times these products are not as simple to operate at home.

People cannot directly transfer meanings to another person. They can only physically exchange symbols, as in speech or writing. Meanings are the interpretations that the receiver makes of the symbols that have been sent. A halt in communication occurs when completely different meanings exist for different people. Certain words, such as love and hate, may have stronger meanings for some people than for others. Communication will not take place unless we share meanings for the symbols we use inour messages. For example, we can all agree what the letter “A” means.

Communication can be seen as a multi-step process. It begins at the source, which is the person or group of people attempting to convey a thought or idea. This idea is turned into a message, which is the next step. Again, this is the physical symbol (that hopefully has a fixed meaning) that is sent to the receiver. The receiver gets the message and then interprets it for meaning.

To satisfy our human needs, communication is necessary. At a very basic level, babies communicate. A baby cries to tell its mother that it is hungry, tired, or needs to be changed. At a more sophisticated level, adults express their emotional needs, likes and dislikes, fears, and desires to one another in aneffort to fulfill the appropriate need. Furthermore, people cannot not communicate.

Kinesics are facial expressions and bodily gestures. These, as well as speaking and writing, are effective in communicating. A smile can relay a message of happiness, whereas a scowl communicates anger. Hand gestures can serve as a way of expressinga greeting, an instruction, or approval. Icons are physical objects used as symbols. These do not include language or gestures; however, they do serve as communication. For example, stop signs communicate to drivers to stop and a poison symbol on a container indicates that a substance may be potentially dangerous. Iconic value is the extent to which this information is portrayed. Size and color of the icon may play a part in strength of the message.

If you are like most customers in modern countries, you do not buy items like toiletries for their chemical properties. In fact, you probably have little or no idea of the composition of such products. Chances are that you buy an image, a “feeling,” or simply “security.” Moreover, your awareness of what you want to buy comes far more from advertising messages than from the product itself.” --Frederick Williams, 1984.

Dissonance is the presence of conflicting or mixed feelings. For example, you may want to eat fatty foods even though you know they may be unhealthy.

Consumerism

Positives of Consumerism

As you remember from the economics website, the United States has a market economy. In a market economy, products are bought, sold, and advertised. A person becomes a consumer when he or she buys a product. As a result, he or she contributes to the economy. In a market economy, each person has a freedom of choice to buy what he or she wants. However, many things play a large part in influencing people to buy certain things. Influences can include advertising, price, prior experience, word of mouth, and various product guarantees.

Consumerism takes place when people buy goods and services for reasons other than to produce other goods and services. Consumerism also includes the reasons why and why not people buy these goods and services. Advertising plays a large part in consumerism because it influences what people buy. As a matter of fact, opponents of advertising argue that advertising dictates what people buy, and therefore affects consumerism negatively.

Many economists believe that the mass consumerism of today’s middle class finds its roots in the concept of dissatisfaction. They argue consumers become dissatisfied with the things they own, and in return want more. The consumer views the things he or she owns in relation to his or her peers. This frequent spending on material objects, they say, results in mass-consumption, and people spend a lot of money on things they do not need.

Many economists believe that capitalism is the cause of the mass consumption we experience every day. With the growth of a market system, they argue, a new, large middle class was created. This middle class consisted of potential buyers. These economists look to countries such as India as examples, where the rapid growth of the middle class has begun to cause mass consumerism and a withering away of traditional values. In the 1920’s, the psychology of scarcity was replaced by the scarcity of abundance. “The U.S. grew giddy with its growing wealth” (Schor 524). The historian Winifred Wanderer explains: It is doubtful that the average American could have described the precise meaning of the term “American standard of living,” but nearly everyone agreed that it was attainable, highly desirable, and far superior to that of any other nation. Its nature varied according to social class and regional differences, but no matter where a family stood socially and financially, it was certain to have aspirations set beyond that stance. This was the great paradox posed by the material prosperity of the twentieth century; prosperity was conspicuously present, but it was always just out of reach, for nearly every family defined its standard of living in terms of an income that it hoped to achieve rather than the reality of the paycheck.

These economists argue that businesses fostered discontent among Americans--Americans needed to have better than what they already had, even though what they already had sufficed. Also in the 1920’s, buyable items were being name-branded. “Ads developed an association between the product and one’s very identity.” (Schor 524). “Eventually they [ads]came to promise everything and anything-- from self-esteem, to status, friendship, and love.” People became afraid not to use products, especially hygienic products. People were no longer satisfied with basic needs.

Along these lines, consumers believe that their next purchase will bring happiness; however, this happiness is temporary. Soon, some economists argue, consumers will feel they need to make their next purchase as their current purchase becomes obsolete. Today’s luxuries become tomorrows necessities. Therefore, people want and spend, and their wishes are never fulfilled. This dissatisfaction has come to be known as “keeping up with the Joneses.” It doesn’t matter how much one consumes. Rather, it matters how much one consumes in relation to one’s peers. Other terms for “keeping up with the Jones” include “relative income” “relative consumption,” or “local status.” Economists argue that consumers must make a choice between income and leisure. This results in habituation. People pass through life in stages (Schor 529). College students have a very low income. Their apartments are clad with used furniture. They eat cheaply. Then, their income doubles with a first job. The former student gets a bigger place to live, better furniture, and eats at more expensive restaurants. Pretty soon, he or she doesn’t understand how at one time he or she lived on half of what he or she now makes. In time, he or she will make even more, and be dissatisfied with the present income.

In addition, some economists say that capitalism and consumption, which are sparked by advertising, have turned America into a consumption-crazy culture. Some even say there is no difference between citizen and consumer. They argue that a world without advertising would be a world without clutter and anxiety. Many people assume advertising has turned America into a consumption-crazed society. America spends over 50% more on advertising than any other nation. The U.S. postal service delivered 63 billion pieces of junk mail in 1990. They argue ads convey a message of personal empowerment. They argue it’s only getting worse, too, and future generations will be even more consumption crazy.

Symbols

A symbol is an object, a mark, or a letter that stands for something more abstract. In poetry, symbols touch on and lead the reader back to a deeper truth or meaning. Simply, symbols are things that stand for other things. Everybody’s dealt with symbols, though they might not have realized. For example, consider what “light” and “dark” symbolize in movies. “Light” often stands for “goodness,” while “dark” stands for evil. In films such as “Star Wars,” the evil Darth Vader said to his good son Luke Skywalker, “Join me on the dark side.” People draw hearts to symbolize “love,” and the bald eagle symbolizes the United States of America.

Advertisers use symbols to get people to buy their products. They try to put something in their ads that will stand for and remind us of a positive thing or things. Colors or color combinations can be symbols. For example, what comes to mind when you see red, white, and blue? Of course, the United States of America. How about red and white only? Coca-Cola maybe, or Marlboro cigarettes, or maybe even Johnny Walker Red Whisky. The cowboy in Marlboro cigarette ads or the Camel in Camel cigarette ads can also be thought of as symbols. Therefore, when people see a camel, or see a cowboy, they associate it with the appropriate product.

This concept has stringent psychological consequences, especially when dealing with minorities and children. For example, recent studies showed that small children associated “Joe Camel” by himself with Camel cigarettes. Often, cigarette ads display men surrounded by beautiful women. This encourages men to associate cigarettes with successful male-female relationships.

The Role of Women and Advertising

From its beginnings, advertising knew that its most important customers were females. Statistics have shown that women make approximately 80% of retail purchases. As a matter of fact, the first advertising literature refers to its audience as “she.” Women who are married not only control much of their counterpart’s spending, but since the beginning of the century, women’s own incomes have increased dramatically. In 1988, 54% of people in America with incomes over $100,000 per year were women. (Goodrum and Dalrymple 249).

Ironically, if you look back at some of history’s ads, which tend to utilize various degrees of sexism and discrimination of women, men wrote the ads which were supposed to appeal to women. In the early part of the century, roughly one in 10 ad agency employees were women, though this ratio favored women better than just about any other employment in the country. Often, though, these women were hired specifically to cover women’s viewpoints.

Many people debate over whether male advertisers depicted women as women saw themselves or whether the men were telling the women how they should be. Others say that debate is irrelevant, and say that if women saw themselves that way, it wascause they were discriminated against and oppressed in general, which resulted in a stereotyped self-image.

World War II, however, changed the rules of women in advertising forever. As the men went off to war, women took over their jobs, including jobs on production lines and managing offices, in addition to taking care of their own homes and children, if they had any.

By the 1960’s, feminists were saying that advertising was very important to how people saw themselves. The American public had been taught how to eat, dress, and sleep. They also argued against women being constantly used as sex objects or stereotypical housewives. They pointed out that men were always doing something to women when both men and women appeared together in ads, and never the reverse. Women were always shown in subordination. Men never were. In living room scenes, men usually claimed the only single chair, with women often perching themselves on the chair arm. The industry paid attention to these criticisms. In the 1970’s, women began appearing professional, dressing business-like and so forth. Women began to be seen as sports heroes and other traditionally male-oriented activities.

This new viewpoint had its drawbacks by the late 1980’s. Many women complained that they didn’t need to live up to the new standard. They argued that the ads with women superior and men inferior were so far-fetched they were insulting to the female intelligence. Women who wanted to concentrate on children at home felt left out. Furthermore, many men felt that they, like females previously, were discriminated against.

Cigarette Advertising 1

In 1883, a cigarette rolling machine was developed that was able to roll 100,000 to 120,000 cigarettes a day. A cigarette manufacturer by the name of James “Buck” Duke quickly obtained the rights to this machine. By 1890, Duke essentially controlled the cigarette and smoking tobacco industry, with the formation of a trust called the American Tobacco Company. In 1907, the U.S. Circuit Court found Duke’s trust guilty of violating the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, something that would probably have happened sooner if not for Duke’s friendship with President Teddy Roosevelt.

The companies that resulted included American Tobacco Co., R.J. Reynolds, Liggett and Myers, Lorillard, and BAT. R.J. Reynolds, at the time, was the smallest of these companies, and thrived on R.J. Reynolds” hatred for Buck Duke. R. J. Reynolds promised two things in concordance with this hatred: he would never sell cigarettes, and he would never use White Burley tobacco. His eventual economic success resulted from his breaking these two promises.

In 1912, Liggett and Myers came out with Chesterfield cigarettes, with the slogan “They Do Satisfy.” Cigarette companies at this time were giving away collectors' cards with cigarettes as incentives to buy them. These cards often had pictures of athletes or movie stars. In the next year, Reynolds came out with his “Camel” cigarettes, and invested over $680,000 in advertising them.

Camels came in a pack of twenty cigarettes, with a label that read “Turkish and Domestic Blend.” The pack also informed consumers there would be no picture cards or other incentives due to the high cost of the tobaccos used. By 1916, Camel was the leading national brand, and was doing so well that in 1918, advertising expenses dropped to $400,000 from the previous $1.9 million two years earlier.

Percival S. Hill, Buck Duke’s successor, saw the potential in advertising and widely distributing his product, but failed to initiate anything new. His son, George Hill, named a new cigarette, “Lucky Strike”, after a successful pipe tobacco of the same name, and began selling them in 1917, and they joined Camel as a national brand. Picture cards in cigarettes became obsolete after this point, and national brands were the tobacco styles of the time. Soon, Chesterfield joined the ranks of Camel and Lucky Strike through catchy, clever advertising.

In 1917, the United States entered World War I, which promoted cigarette smoking even further. U.S. and French soldiers obtained free cigarettes easily. The free cigarettes, greater demand, and tax increases drove cigarette prices up in the following years. The demand for cigarettes, though, helped the economy, and farmers especially reaped the benefits.

In the 1920’s, Hill proved how valuable advertising was to the cigarette industry. To him, selling cigarettes was about the image they put forth. In addition, the roaring 1920’s were known as “The Age of Jazz,” a period known for its women’s rights movement. Hill recognized the greater number of potential women smokers as social pressure regarding women and smoking eased, and was intent to figure out away to market his Lucky Strike brand to them. During the 20’s, several companies, including Lorillard, used women in their cigarette ads, but sales did not go up, probably due to never having actual cigarettes appear in these ads. Hill approached Albert D. Lasker, a famous advertiser of the time, and came up with the famous slogan, “I Light a Lucky and Go Light on the Sweets. That’s How I Keep in Good Shape and Always Feel Peppy.”

Tobacco Advertising 2

As medical information associating tobacco with health hazards such as lung cancer was disseminated, tobacco companies began changing their advertising schemes accordingly. In 1942, Brown and Williamson said their “Kool” menthol cigarettes would protect smokers from colds. A year later, Philip Morris stated in an advertisement in the National Medical Journal that “3 out of 4 cases of smokers” cough disappeared when smoking their cigarettes.” A 1952 Chesterfield ad by Liggett and Myers stated smoking would not affect the sinuses or other organs. As more medical news linking smoking and cancer cropped up, tobacco companies began advertising their “filtered” cigarettes as an alternative.

In 1964, Philip Morris launched perhaps the most effective advertising campaign ever: Marlboro Country. The Marlboro Cowboy had been created 10 years earlier, and was now the main focus of Philip Morris. The campaign was headed by advertising genius Leo Burnett, and depicted a calm, strong cowboy smoking a cigarette. Accordingly, Westerns were a popular style of film at the time. Originally, the ad was set to a Western musical score. Ironically, in 1991, “Marlboro Man” Wayne McClaren, dying of lung cancer, asked corporate leaders at Phillip Morris to limit advertising of cigarettes. Chairman Michael Miles replied, “Without knowing your medical history, I don’t think I can comment any further.”

Soon, cigarette ads were not only based on movies, but appeared in movies. In the 1980 hit film “Superman 2,” Lois Lane is usually seen with a pack of Marlboro cigarettes. This is largely due to a reported Phillip Morris payment of $42,000 for a certain number of cigarette exposures.

While tobacco ads were restricted to print in the 1960’s, companies such as Phillip Morris discovered several loopholes, such as diverting cigarette attention to tobacco companies through sponsoring sporting events such as the Virginia Slims Tennis Circuit. A Phillip Morris chairman said, “We hope people will come away with favorable impressions of the company.” In 1973, Marlboro Cup horse racing began.

In 1991, The Journal of the American Medical Association released two studies relating to “Joe Camel,” one of R.J. Reynolds” advertising campaigns. In these ads, cartoon-like camels play instruments at a jazzy night club while smoking. The first study revealed that 91 percent of six-year-olds equate Joe Camel with Camel cigarettes. The second one found that sales of the Camel brand to under 18 children has risen.

The Effects of Cigarette Advertising

There has always been a question as to whether there is a direct link between cigarette advertising and consumption. Although the tobacco industry alleges that advertising simply encourages existing adult smokers to change or maintain brand preference, studies have shown that advertising does indeed influence smoking behavior. Furthermore, cigarette advertising has an even greater effect on children.

More than one million children start smoking each year. There are many reasons why children begin smoking. For example, it has been hypothesized that youths develop a tobacco habit relationship with external, but immediate sources of socialization such as, parents, peers, schools, siblings, and yes, advertisements. Hastings (1995) states, "Children are more likely to smoke if they are encouraged to do so by wider social or cultural pressures rather than the immediate circle of family and friends" (1).

The reason the tobacco companies target young people is simple. Studies have gathered information showing that relatively few people start smoking after their early twenties. This makes it imperative for the tobacco industry to focus on the younger generation. The success of the advertising aimed at children is what allows the industry to continue to flourish.

Children are increasingly receptive to cigarette promotion. Their ability to recall, recognize, and identify anything exposed to them (including advertising) is often underestimated. For example, children between the ages of three and six can correctly match the “Joe Camel” cartoon character to a picture of a cigarette. It was concluded that by the age of six, the same cartoon character is as well recognized as Mickey Mouse. Also, children are most aware of cigarette brands associated with sports. Cigarette sport sponsorship has been a very effective tool used by the tobacco industry. This is most evident in the flourishing sport of stock car racing.

A goal for the cigarette companies is to not only initiate smoking, but to ensure the continuation of smoking by its customers. Many cigarette advertisements do this by reducing the concern that smoking may be harmful. Cigarette ads show smoking as a normal, healthy, and fun activity. As a result, the informed message from parents and teachers that smoking causes disease, and ultimately death, is weakened.

Cigarette companies also use positive reinforcement techniques to help with retention. This is done by rewarding the existing customer. An example of this would be "Marlboro Miles". Marlboro recently ran a promotion in which the smoker was rewarded for buying packs of cigarettes by receiving free Marlboro merchandise. The customer had to simply collect and mail in the proofs of purchase from each cigarette pack. This promotion was two-fold. Receiving free merchandise served to reinforce the existing customer while the exposure of the Marlboro merchandise attracted new customers. This type of promotion is an ideal way of getting around existing laws regarding tobacco advertising.

In conclusion, it is clear that cigarette advertising is getting through to young people and possibly increasing the risk of children becoming smokers. For example, a survey done in Scotland showed that 95% of under-age smokers smoked the most heavily advertised brand. As a result of these findings, it becomes apparent that what the tobacco companies say is intended to reinforce adult brand preference, actually has a great effect on children.

As a result of the tobacco companies' attempt to tap the adolescent smoking market, the U.S. government has developed new restrictions on cigarette advertising. The tobacco companies responded to this setback by adopting the motto: When the going gets tough, the tough move overseas. Now, two thirds of all American tobacco products are sold outside of the United States.

Economically challenged countries have welcomed American tobacco companies. The amount of money that these companies are willing to invest is very tantalizing to the struggling economies of these countries. In some cases the tobacco taxes provide the largest portion of government revenue.

Tobacco companies have encountered unlimited foreign advertising accessibility, which was not possible in the United States. Executives say that they encounter fewer restrictions and are able to reach the desirable teen market. For example, a promotional calendar in the Philippines issued by the Fortune Tobacco Corporation features the Virgin Mary surrounded by packs of various cigarette brands. So far, the overseas advertising, although sometimes very distasteful, has been successful. Currently, support for international tobacco control provisions are pending before Congress.

Cigarette Advertising and Minorities

When compared to other high toll-taking deaths such as murder and auto accidents, tobacco is definitely the most preventable cause of death. This case is especially so in minority communities, and doctors like National Medical Association President Leonard E Lawrence, MD, continue to fight against the tobacco companies. African-American and Latino men smoke more than white men. Tobaccocompanies market specifically to minority communities. They advertise in ethnic publications, sponsor various minority events, and target their billboards to minority communities. To prove this point, the US Secretary of Health and Human Services lashed out at R.J. Reynolds for targeting its “Uptown” cigarettes to African-Americans.

Claudia Morain, in the Monday, November 15 ,1993 (vol. 36, no 43) issue of the American Medical Associations Medical News tells the story of Willie Brown, an African American Democrat who served as the Speaker of the California Assembly. Brown received four times more pay off money than the largest Congressional recipient between 1991 and 1992. A bill to ban smoking in California’s public places failed, and to this day many people still blame Brown.

In 1938, William Reynolds, brother of R.J. Reynolds, opened the Kate Bitting Reynolds Hospital for blacks in the segregated Winston-Salem, N.C., home of the R.J. Reynolds company. Many opponents of tobacco claim they did this to get into the “early” favor of minorities so that they could successfully market their cigarettes to them. By 1950, smoking rates among African American men had surpassed white men. “Uptown” cigarettes were first marketed in a poor Philadelphia neighborhood. An outraged pastor, Rev. Jesse W. Brown Jr., put up a large protest, and the Uptown crusade failed. Brown said “I have to bury enough people in my community who die of cancer because of the tobacco industry.” Surveys usually find the numbers of tobacco billboard per square mile in minority neighborhoods far greater than in white neighborhoods. In one 19-block area, Brown found 73 billboards and all but seven advertised tobacco and alcohol.

Frequently Asked Advertising Questions

Are advertisers required to tell the truth?

• Under the Federal Trade Commission Act, advertising is required to tell the truth and be non-deceptive.
  
• Advertisers must have evidence to back up their claims.
  
• Advertisements cannot be unfair.
  

Advertisements can be considered deceptive when:

• it contains a statement likely to mislead consumers acting reasonably under the circumstances.
  
• it is important to a consumer’s decision to buy or use the product.
  

Advertising is considered unfair when:

• the product causes or is likely to cause substantial injury.
  
• the consumer is unable to avoid injury.
  

How does the FTC determine if an ad is deceptive?

• The FTC looks at the ad from the point of view of the “reasonable consumer”
  
• The typical person looking at the ad. Rather than focusing on certain words, the FTC looks at the ad in context-- words, phrases, and pictures-- to determine what it conveys to the consumers.
  
• The FTC looks at both “express” and “implied” claims. An express claim is literally made in the ad. For example “ABC Mouthwash prevents colds” is an express claim that the product will prevent colds. An implied claim is one made indirectly or by inference. “ABC Mouthwash kills the germs that cause colds” contains an implied claim that the product will prevent colds.
  
• The FTC looks at what the ad does not say-- that is, if the failure to include information leaves consumers with a false impression about the product.
  
• The FTC looks at whether the claim would be “material” -- that is, important to a consumer’s decision to buy or use the product. Examples of material claims are representations about a product’s performance, features, safety, price, or effectiveness.
  
• The FTC looks at whether the advertiser has sufficient evidence to support the claims in the ad. The law requires that advertisers have proof before the ad runs.
  

What kind of evidence must a company have to support the claims in its ads?

Are letters from satisfied customers sufficient to substantiate a claim?

What kind of advertising claims does the FTC focus on?

• Ads that make claims about health or safety are priority.
  
• Ads that make claims that consumers would have trouble evaluating for themselves are also looked at.

How does the FTC decide what cases to bring to court?

• Although the FTC has jurisdiction over most products and services, Congress has given other government agencies the authority to investigate advertising by airlines, banks, insurance companies, telephone and cable companies, and companies that sell securities and commodities.
  
• The Geographic Scope of the advertising campaign-- The FTC concentrates on national advertising and refers local matters to state, county or city agencies.
  
• The extent to which an ad represents a pattern of deception, rather than an individual dispute between a consumer and a business or a dispute between two competitors is considered
  
• The FTC concentrates on cases that could affect consumers' health or safety (for example, deceptive health claims for foods or over the counter drugs) or cases that result in widespread economic injury.

What penalties can be imposed against a company that runs a false or deceptive ad?

• Cease and desist orders may be issued. These legally-binding orders require companies to stop running the deceptive ad or engaging in the deceptive practice, to have substantiation for claims in future ads, to report periodically to FTC staff about the substantiation they have for claims in new ads, and to paya fine of $11,000 per day per ad if the company violates the law in the future.
• Civil penalties, consumer redress, and other monetary remedies may be employed. Violation of certain statutes can result in civil penalties ranging from thousands to millions of dollars, depending on the nature of the violation. In other cases, advertisers have had to give full or partial refunds to all consumers who bought the product.
• Corrective advertising, disclosures, and other informational remedies are used. Advertisers have been required to take out new ads to correct the misinformation conveyed in the original ad. Advertisers also have had to notify purchasers about deceptive claims in ads, include specific disclosures in future ads, or provide other information to consumers.
• Bans and bonds may be instituted. In some cases, individuals have been banned from an industry or have been required to post a bond before continuing business.

Are advertising agencies subject to the FTC act?

• Yes. In addition to the advertiser, the advertising agency also may be held legally responsible for misleading claims. Advertising agencies have a duty to make an independent check on the information used to substantiate ad claims. They may not rely on an advertiser’s assurance that the claims are substantiated.
  
• The extent of the agency’s participation in the preparation of the challenged ad is considered.
  
• Whether or not the agency knew, or should have known that the ad included false or deceptive claims is also considered.
  

Does the FTC regulate ads for alcoholic beverages?

The FTC can take action if an alcohol ad is deceptive or unfair. The ATF (Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms) also has jurisdiction over deceptive ormisleading alcohol labeling and advertising.

Is it legal to advertise distilled spirits on TV?

Until recently, there was a voluntary policy within the distilled spirits industry not to advertise on television. In 1996, the industry repealed that policy. However, many broadcasters still do not accept ads for distilled spirits.

How does the FTC define “bait and switch” advertising?

It’s illegal to advertise a product when the company has no intention of selling that item, but instead plans to sell a consumer something else, usually at a higher price.

What standards does the FTC apply when evaluating claims in ads aimed at children?

The FTC pays particular attention to ads aimed at children because children may be more vulnerable to certain kinds of deception. Advertising directed to children is evaluated from a child’s point of view, not an adult’s.

1. Sports Illustrated for Kids, January 1999. Volume 2 No. 1.
2. Teen (www.teenmag.com) Petersen Publishing. January 1999
3. Farace, Richard V.; Monge, Peter R.; Russell, Hamish M.. Communicating and Organizing. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., INC. Phillipines
4. Weick, Karl E.. The Social Psychology of Organizing. Addison-Wesley publishing Inc. Phillipines
5. Williams, Frederick. The New Communications. Wadsworth Publishing Inc. Belmont, CA.
6. Schor, Juliet B. “Consumerism.” Crossfire: An Argument. Editors: Goshgarian, Gary A. and Krueger, Kathleen. Longman Inc. 1997
7. Baldwin, Deborah. “The Hard Sell.” Crossfire: An Argument. Editors: Goshgarian, Gary A. and Krueger, Kathleen. Longman Inc. 1997
8. Shudson, Michael. “Delectable Materialism.” Crossfire: An Argument. Editors: Goshgarian, Gary A. and Krueger, Kathleen. Longman Inc. 1997
9. Volk, Patricia. “A Word From Our Sponsor.” Crossfire: An Argument. Editors: Goshgarian, Gary A. and Krueger, Kathleen. Longman Inc. 1997
10. Lutz, William. “With These Words I Can Sell You Anything.” Crossfire: An Argument. Editors: Goshgarian, Gary A. and Krueger, Kathleen. Longman Inc. 1997
11. O’Neil, Charles A. “The Language of Advertising” Crossfire: An Argument. Editors: Goshgarian, Gary A. and Krueger Kathleen. Longman Inc. 1997
12. Drexler, Madeline. “Tapping the Youth Market” Crossfire: An Argument. Editors: Goshgarian, Gary A. and Krueger, Kathleen. Longman Inc. 1997
13. McCabe, Edward A. “Sex in Advertising” Crossfire: An Argument. Editors: Goshgarian, Gary A. and Krueger, Kathleen. Longman Inc. 1997
14. John Carroll “Sex Is Still Doing the Selling” Crossfire: An Argument. Editors: Goshgarian, Gary A. and Krueger, Kathleen. Longman Inc. 1997
15. www.udayton.edu/~health/smoking/smoking.htm (Smoking and Minorities, Gender, Race)
16. www.udayton.edu/~health/smoking/kiss.htm (Kiss of Death: African Americans and the Tobacco Industry)
17. www.ama-assn.org/sci-pubs/journals/archive/jama/vol_279/no_7/joc7314a.htm (JAMA: Youth and Tobacco Advertising)
18. www.altavista.com/cgi-bin/query?pg=q&user=ns&q=cigarette+advertising&stq=10&c9k (The Ghost of Cigarette Advertising Past)
19. www.nytimes.com/aponline/f/AP-Phillip-Morris-Buyback.html (Phillip Morris Stock info.)
20. www.mahoning-health.org/ap/smoking.htm (Teen Smoking Info.)
21. Goodrum, Charles and Dalrymple, Helen. Advertising. Harry N. Abrams INC. New York.

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Crossfire: An Argument Rhetoric and Reader, Gary Goshgarian and Kathleen Krueger, 1997, New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Advertising and the Transformation of American Society, 1865-1920, James D. Norris, 1990, New York: Greenwood Press.

Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, 1997, CD-Rom.

SGR 4 Kids Ð The Real Deal About Tobacco (1998) http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/osh/sgr4kids/realdeal.htm (September 21, 1998)

American Cancer Society: Great American Smokeout GASP: FAQ’s (1998) http://www.cancer.org/smokeout/faq.html (September 21, 1998)

Media Literacy for Certified Health Education Specialists (1998) http://www.sph.emory.edu/%7edevan01/ (October 2, 1998) Hastings, G. (1995, December). Tobacco Advertising and Children’s

Smoking: A Review of the Evidence. European Journal of Marketing, 1.

Cigarette Advertising:

• http://english.ttu.edu/courses/1302/kemp/sp96/sa2f/jlrsa2f.htm.
• Bist, Richard. Holy Smokes! Big Tobacco Moves Overseas. Pragmatist Magazine. October 1998.